Philosophical Perspectives in Education
Philosophical
Perspectives in Education
Four General
Philosophies
The
term metaphysics literally means "beyond the physical." This area of
philosophy focuses on the nature of reality. Metaphysics attempts to find unity
across the domains of experience and thought. At the metaphysical level, there
are four* broad philosophical schools of thought that apply to education today.
They are idealism, realism, pragmatism (sometimes called experientialism), and
existentialism. Each will be explained shortly. These four general frameworks
provide the root or base from which the various educational philosophies are
derived.
*
A fifth metaphysical school of thought, called Scholasticism, is largely
applied in Roman Catholic schools in the educational philosophy called
"Thomism." It combines idealist and realist philosophies in a
framework that harmonized the ideas of Aristotle, the realist, with idealist
notions of truth. Thomas Aquinas, 1255-127, was the theologian who wrote
"Summa Theologica," formalizing church doctrine. The Scholasticism
movement encouraged the logical and philosophical study of the beliefs of the
church, legitimizing scientific inquiry within a religious framework.
Two
of these general or world philosophies, idealism and realism,
are derived from the ancient Greek philosophers, Plato and Aristotle. Two are
more contemporary, pragmatism and existentialism.
However, educators who share one of these distinct sets of beliefs about the
nature of reality presently apply each of these world philosophies in
successful classrooms. Let us explore each of these metaphysical schools of
thought.
Idealism is a philosophical approach that has as its
central tenet that ideas are the only true reality, the only thing worth
knowing. In a search for truth, beauty, and justice that is enduring and
everlasting, the focus is on conscious reasoning in the mind. Plato, father of
Idealism, espoused this view about 400 years BC, in his famous book, The
Republic. Plato believed that there are two worlds. The first is the
spiritual or mental world, which is eternal, permanent, orderly, regular, and
universal. There is also the world of appearance, the world experienced through
sight, touch, smell, taste, and sound, that is changing, imperfect, and
disorderly. This division is often referred to as the duality of mind and body.
Reacting
against what he perceived as too much of a focus on the immediacy of the
physical and sensory world, Plato described a utopian society in which
"education to body and soul all the beauty and perfection of which they
are capable" as an ideal. In his allegory of the cave, the shadows of the
sensory world must be overcome with the light of reason or universal truth. To
understand truth, one must pursue knowledge and identify with the Absolute
Mind. Plato also believed that the soul is fully formed prior to birth and is
perfect and at one with the Universal Being. The birth process checks this
perfection, so education requires bringing latent ideas (fully formed concepts)
to consciousness.
In
idealism, the aim of education is to discover and develop each individual's
abilities and full moral excellence in order to better serve society. The
curricular emphasis is subject matter of mind: literature, history, philosophy,
and religion. Teaching methods focus on handling ideas through lecture,
discussion, and Socratic dialogue (a method of teaching that uses questioning
to help students discover and clarify knowledge). Introspection, intuition,
insight, and whole-part logic are used to bring to consciousness the forms or
concepts which are latent in the mind. Character is developed through imitating
examples and heroes.
Realism. Realists
believe that reality exists independent of the human mind. The ultimate reality
is the world of physical objects. The focus is on the body/objects. Truth is
objective-what can be observed. Aristotle, a student of Plato who broke with
his mentor's idealist philosophy, is called the father of both Realism and the
scientific method. In this metaphysical view, the aim is to understand
objective reality through "the diligent and unsparing scrutiny of all
observable data." Aristotle believed that to understand an object, its
ultimate form had to be understood, which does not change. For example, a rose
exists whether or not a person is aware of it. A rose can exist in the mind
without being physically present, but ultimately, the rose shares properties
with all other roses and flowers (its form), although one rose may be red and
another peach colored.
Aristotle
also was the first to teach logic as a formal discipline in order to be able to
reason about physical events and aspects. The exercise of rational thought is
viewed as the ultimate purpose for humankind. The Realist curriculum emphasizes
the subject matter of the physical world, particularly science and mathematics.
The teacher organizes and presents content systematically within a discipline,
demonstrating use of criteria in making decisions. Teaching methods focus on
mastery of facts and basic skills through demonstration and recitation.
Students must also demonstrate the ability to think critically and
scientifically, using observation and experimentation. Curriculum should be
scientifically approached, standardized, and distinct-discipline based.
Character is developed through training in the rules of conduct.
Pragmatism (Experientialism). For pragmatists, only those things that are
experienced or observed are real. In this late 19th century American
philosophy, the focus is on the reality of experience. Unlike the Realists and
Rationalists, Pragmatists believe that reality is constantly changing and that
we learn best through applying our experiences and thoughts to problems, as
they arise. The universe is dynamic and evolving, a "becoming" view
of the world. There is no absolute and unchanging truth, but rather, truth is
what works. Pragmatism is derived from the teaching of Charles Sanders Peirce
(1839-1914), who believed that thought must produce action, rather than linger
in the mind and lead to indecisiveness.
John
Dewey (1859-1952) applied pragmatist philosophy in his progressive approaches.
He believed that learners must adapt to each other and to their environment.
Schools should emphasize the subject matter of social experience. All learning
is dependent on the context of place, time, and circumstance. Different
cultural and ethnic groups learn to work cooperatively and contribute to a
democratic society. The ultimate purpose is the creation of a new social order.
Character development is based on making group decisions in light of
consequences.
For
Pragmatists, teaching methods focus on hands-on problem solving, experimenting,
and projects, often having students work in groups. Curriculum should bring the
disciplines together to focus on solving problems in an interdisciplinary way.
Rather than passing down organized bodies of knowledge to new learners,
Pragmatists believe that learners should apply their knowledge to real
situations through experimental inquiry. This prepares students for
citizenship, daily living, and future careers.
Existentialism. The
nature of reality for Existentialists is subjective, and lies within the
individual. The physical world has no inherent meaning outside of human
existence. Individual choice and individual standards rather than external
standards are central. Existence comes before any definition of what we are. We
define ourselves in relationship to that existence by the choices we make. We
should not accept anyone else's predetermined philosophical system; rather, we
must take responsibility for deciding who we are. The focus is on freedom, the
development of authentic individuals, as we make meaning of our lives.
There
are several different orientations within the existentialist philosophy. Soren
Kierkegaard (1813-1855), a Danish minister and philosopher, is considered to be
the founder of existentialism. His was a Christian orientation. Another group
of existentialists, largely European, believes that we must recognize the
finiteness of our lives on this small and fragile planet, rather than believing
in salvation through God. Our existence is not guaranteed in an after life, so
there is tension about life and the certainty of death, of hope or despair.
Unlike
the more austere European approaches where the universe is seen as meaningless
when faced with the certainty of the end of existence, American existentialists
have focused more on human potential and the quest for personal meaning. Values
clarification is an outgrowth of this movement. Following the bleak period of World
War II, the French philosopher, Jean Paul Sartre, suggested that for youth, the
existential moment arises when young persons realize for the first time that
choice is theirs, that they are responsible for themselves. Their question
becomes "Who am I and what should I do?
Related
to education, the subject matter of existentialist classrooms should be a
matter of personal choice. Teachers view the individual as an entity within a
social context in which the learner must confront others' views to clarify his
or her own. Character development emphasizes individual responsibility for
decisions. Real answers come from within the individual, not from outside
authority. Examining life through authentic thinking involves students in
genuine learning experiences. Existentialists are opposed to thinking about
students as objects to be measured, tracked, or standardized. Such educators
want the educational experience to focus on creating opportunities for
self-direction and self actualization. They start with the student, rather than
on curriculum content.